Influencia del contexto en el desarrollo cognitivo infantil: revisión sistemática

(analítico) Durante los últimos años diversas investigaciones analizaron la asociación entre contexto y desarrollo infantil. Un problema central es si el ambiente influye en el desarrollo cognitivo. El contexto está compuesto por diferentes niveles que interactúan entre sí e influyen en las personas: el microsistema, mesosistema, exosistema y el macrosistema. El objetivo de esta revisión sistemática es indagar acerca de los factores que pertenecen al contexto y modularían el desarrollo infantil. A través de una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en revistas científicas indexadas, se seleccionaron 22 artículos, los cuales fueron analizados mediante la comparación de las variables: población, país, instrumento de evaluación, constructo evaluado, frecuencia de evaluación y resultados. Los resultados muestran que los factores ambientales pertenecientes a cada nivel analizado tienen la capacidad de modular el desarrollo infantil.

(analytical) Over the past few years, research has focused on the association between context and child development. One of the central problems addressed is whether a child's environment influences cognitive development. The context consists of different levels that interact with each other and influence people: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem. The goal of this systematic review is to investigate factors that form part of the context and affect child development. Twenty-two articles were selected through a search of empirical articles in indexed scientific journals. These were analyzed by comparing the variables used: population, country, evaluation instrument, evaluated construct, evaluation frequency and results. The results show that environmental factors belonging to each context level have the capacity to modulate child development.

(analítico) Nos últimos anos, a investigação analisou a parceria entre o contexto e o desenvolvimento infantil. Um dos problemas centrais é se o ambiente influencia no desenvolvimento cognitivo. O contexto é composto por diferentes níveis que interagem entre si e influenciam as pessoas: o microssistema, o mesosistema, o exosistema e o macrosistema. O objetivo desta revisão sistemática é indagar sobre os fatores que pertencem ao contexto e modular o desenvolvimento infantil. Através de uma pesquisa de artigos empíricos em revistas científicas indexadas, foram selecionados 22 artigos, os quais foram analisados mediante a comparação das variáveis: população, país, instrumento de avaliação, constructo avaliado, frequência de avaliação e resultados. Os resultados mostram que os fatores ambientais pertencentes a cada nível analisado têm a capacidade de modular o desenvolvimento infantil.

Efectos de la exposición a música activante y relajante sobre el estado emocional de una población de adolescentes / Effects of exposure to activating and relaxing music on the emotional state of a population of adolescents / Efeitos da exposição a música ativante e relaxante sobre o estado emocional duma população de adolescentes

Resumen La ansiedad es definida como la anticipación a una futura amenaza, con una prevalencia que alcanza el 8% en las personas jóvenes a nivel mundial. Objetivo. El propósito de este trabajo fue identificar los efectos de la exposición a música sobre la ansiedad en una muestra de individuos adolescentes entre 10 y 14 años de ambos sexos. Materiales y métodos. Cada uno de los participantes completó un test estandarizado para evaluar su ansiedad. De modo previo a los tratamientos, los participantes completaron las escalas de estado y rasgo del STAI, luego escucharon estímulos sonoros (música relajante, activante o ruido blanco) y finalmente completaron la escala de estado de ansiedad. Resultados. Los resultados indicaron que el estímulo musical con características activantes generó un efecto ansiogénico en los participantes. Conclusiones. Estos datos son relevantes para el campo de la musicoterapia, disciplina que utiliza la música con fines terapéuticos y que aborda los trastornos de ansiedad en diferentes poblaciones.

Abstract Anxiety is defined as the anticipation of a future threat with a prevalence that reaches 8% in young people around the world. Objective. The purpose of this work was to identify the effects of exposure to music on anxiety in a sample of adolescents between 10 and 14 years of age of both sexes. Materials and methods. Each of the participants completed a standardized test to assess their anxiety. Prior to the treatments, the participants completed the STAI status and trait scales, then listened to sound stimuli (relaxing, activating music, or white noise) and finally completed the anxiety status scale. Results. The results indicated that the musical stimulus with activating characteristics generated an anxiogenic effect in the participants. Conclusion. These data are relevant to the field of music therapy, a discipline that uses music with therapeutic purposes and that addresses anxiety disorders in different populations.

Resumo A ansiedade é definida como a antecipação a uma futura ameaça, com uma prevalência que alcança o 8% nas personas jovens a nível mundial. Objetivo. O propósito deste trabalho foi identificar os efeitos da exposição a música sobre a ansiedade em uma amostra de indivíduos adolescentes entre 10 e 14 anos de ambos sexos. Materiais e métodos. Cada um dos participantes completou um teste padronizado para avaliar sua ansiedade. De modo prévio aos tratamentos, os participantes completaram as escadas de estado e rasgo do STAI, depois escutaram estímulos sonoros (música relaxante, ativante ou barulho branco) e finalmente completaram a escada de estado de ansiedade. Resultados. Os resultados indicaram que o estímulo musical com características ativantes gerou um efeito antigênico nos participantes. Conclusões. Estes dados são relevantes para o campo da musicoterapia, disciplina que utiliza a música com fins terapêuticos e que aborda os transtornos de ansiedade em diferentes populações.

Modulación del estado de ánimo a través de estímulos musicales activantes. Un diseño experimental con adultos jóvenes / Modulation of mood by activating musical stimuli. An experimental design with young adults

Resumen La música provoca respuestas emocionales que se ven reflejadas en los cambios fisiológicos y cognitivos de los oyentes. Es una temática de estudio en común entre distintas disciplinas como la psicología de la música, la musicoterapia, la antropología de la música y la la neuropsicología, entre otras. Entender de qué manera la música puede incidir en el estado de ánimo de las personas permite contribuir al conocimiento sobre el efecto comportamental y a la creación de nuevas técnicas orientadas para regular las emociones mediante la música. Teniendo en cuenta estos antecedentes, se realizó un estudio con el propósito de evaluar el efecto de la percepción de una pieza musical con características activantes (grupo experimental) versus ruido blanco (grupo control) como modulador del estado de ánimo, desde la perspectiva de las neurociencias, contando con la participación de adultos de entre 18 a 40 años. La inducción emocional de los participantes se realizó a través de la observación de imágenes con valencia emocional negativa. Posteriormente, y bajo una distribución al azar, un grupo de voluntarios escuchó la pieza musical activante y otro grupo escuchó el ruido blanco; ambos estímulos auditivos duraron 3 minutos. Se evaluó el estado emocional antes y después de la percepción auditiva. Los resultados analizados a través de pruebas no paramétricas (test de Wilcoxon) indicaron que la música con características activantes moduló emociones de tristeza y ansiedad, disminuyéndolas significativamente. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la percepción musical presenta potencialidades para la reducción del estrés, así como la ansiedad, brindando evidencia desde un enfoque neurocognitivo.

Abstract Music, from its several possibilities, induces emotional responses, which are reflected in the physiological and cognitive changes of the listeners, this is a thematic of study in common among different disciplines: music psychology, music therapy, music anthropology, neuropsychology, among others. At the neuroanatomical level, neuroimaging studies have shown that music can modulate the activity of limbic and paralimbic structures, that is, structures that are especially involved in the initiation, generation, maintenance, completion and modulation of emotions. Being able to understand how music can affect the mood of people allow us to contribute to the creation of new techniques oriented to emotional regulation through music. The current study was develop with the aim of evaluating the effect of perception of a musical piece, with activating characteristics (experimental group) vs. white noise (control group), as mood modulator, from a neurosientific perspective. Participated 29 young adults (55 % man), between 18 to 40 years old (. = 22.07, SD = .43), with no presence of neurological diseases or amusia, nor consumption of medications at the time of the study. The selection of the musical piece with activating characteristics was evaluated in a preliminary study, which counted with the participation of 24 young adults, who valued three pieces of music in terms of valence (emotion that the piece generated) and arousal (activation level). The 3 pieces were: "Tika Tika Walk" by Carlos D'alessio; "Leafmen" by Danny Elfman and "Define Dancing" by Thomas Newman. From this preliminary study, the activating stimulus that would be used for emotional modulation was selected ("Leafmen" by Danny Elfman). The emotional induction of the participants was carried out through the observation of 24 images with negative emotional valence (extracted from International Affective Picture System). About procedure, the study consisted of a single session of activity, divided into the following five phases: (1) information phase: participants signed the informed consent and completed the socio demographic questionnaire, (2) emotional induction phase: participants observed 24 negative images, and they had to rate each image from 0 to 10 (not arousing/emotional at all to highly arousing/emotional), (3) pre- measurement phase: participants completed a scale of mood, instrument used to measure transient moods, (4) perception phase: under a random distribution, a group of volunteers listened the activating music piece and another group listened the white noise (both for 3 minutes), and finally (5) post-measurement phase: participants completed a scale of mood after music or white noise perception. We analyzed the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of the sample using the statistics of Levenne and Shapiro Wilk. The results analyzed through non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon test, with a . value of .05). In the pre- measurement of mood, no significant differences were found between groups. Results of post- measurement phase indicated that music with activating characteristics, modulated the emotions of sadness and anxiety, decreasing them significantly. The results obtained indicate that music, specifically selected, aided as a modulator of emotions. It is important not to generalize the results obtained to the whole population, in this sense and thinking in future research, it would be necessary to expand the sample to a larger ., as well as to investigate this effect in other samples. The results obtained allow to open new paths in terms of the intrinsic qualities of music and its elements to promote relief of anxiety and stress, regulate moods and, promote motivation or enable the development of mechanisms to adapt to situations new and/or traumatic. Finally, it could be assumed that music constitutes an effective stimulus to modulate emotional responses, which are reflected in the mood changes of the listeners.

Adquisición y Recuerdo de Palabras Emocionales en Población Monolingüe y Bilingüe / Acquisition and Retrieval of Emotional Words in Monolingual and Bilingual Populations

Resumen La memoria emocional alude al efecto que poseen las emociones sobre la formación de recuerdos. En personas que utilizan un segundo idioma, este efecto presenta resultados controversiales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue indagar sobre la relación entre memoria y emoción en sujetos monolingües (ML) y bilingües (BL) español-inglés, a través de una tarea de valoración emocional y de dos tareas de memoria. Participaron 49 sujetos, quienes codificaron una lista de palabras en español (ML y BL) o en inglés (BL) indicando valencia y arousal para cada una. Inmediatamente y siete días después, se evaluaron recuerdo libre y reconocimiento. Para aquellos sujetos que codificaron los estímulos en español (ML y BL) las palabras fueron calificadas con una mayor carga emocional que para aquellos participantes que las codificaron en inglés (BL). Además, el grupo ml presentó mayor cantidad de intrusiones que ambos grupos BL. Existirían factores particulares en el procesamiento de la información emocional que modularían el recuerdo emocional en BL y ML.

Abstract The term emotional memory refers to the particular effect where emotions influence memory formation. This effect is controversial for people who use a second language. This study aims to explore the relationship between memory and emotion on Spanish-English bilingual (BL) and monolingual (ML) adults through an emotional rating task and two memory tasks. The 49 participants (15 ML and 34 BL) encoded a wordlist in either Spanish (ML and BL) or English (BL) while reporting the valence and arousal ratings for each word. All groups took a free recall and recognition task for the list immediately and seven days after encoding. For those subjects who encoded the stimuli in Spanish (ML and BL), the words had a higher emotional load than the ones encoded them in English (BL). Furthermore, the ML-group presented more intrusions than both BL-groups. Particular forms of information processing could modulate memory retrieval on emotional memory for bilinguals and monolinguals.

Hacia un envejecimiento saludable: una revisión sistemática sobre la música y el ejercicio físico como factores moduladores / Towards a Healthy Aging: A Systematic Review about Music and Physical Exercise as Modulating Factors

Resumen El envejecimiento se define como un conjunto de procesos que conllevan cambios biológicos, fisiológicos, psicosociales y funcionales, caracterizados por la manifestación de un deterioro cognitivo gradual y progresivo. Actualmente, hay un fuerte interés en identificar qué factores promueven un envejecimiento cognitivo saludable, así como en identificar qué intervenciones y estrategias brindan protección contra enfermedades neurodegenerativas relacionadas con la edad. Objetivo. El objetivo de la presente revisión sistemática es presentar las investigaciones que usan a la música o la actividad física como intervenciones que modulan aspectos fisiológicos y cognitivos del proceso de envejecimiento. Método. Se incluyeron estudios desde el año 2007 al 2018, cuya búsqueda se realizó en bases de datos (Redalyc, Scielo, Science Direct, PubMed, Taylor, & Francis) y en la que se obtuvieron 34 artículos empíricos (17 relacionados con música y 17 con ejercicio físico). Conclusión. La principal conclusión es que se halla un desempeño cognitivo mejorado en los adultos mayores fruto de este tipo de intervenciones.

Abstract Aging is defined as a set of biological processes genetically determined, that are characterized by the manifestation of gradual and progressive cognitive deterioration. Currently, there is a strong interest to identify which factors promote healthy cognitive aging, and the interventions and strategies that protect against age-related neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this systematic review is to outline non-pharmacological interventions that included music or physical activity programs for older adults. Studies published between the years of 2007 and 2018 in major databases (Redalyc, Scielo, Science Direct, PubMed, Taylor, & Francis) were included in this review, obtaining 34 empirical articles (17 related with music and 17 with physical activity). The main conclusion is that an enhanced cognitive performance is found in older adults who were exposed to these interventions.

Creatividad. Una revisión descriptiva sobre nuestra capacidad de invención e innovación / Creativity. A descriptive review of our invention and innovation capacity

Resumen En el campo de las neurociencias, la creatividad es la capacidad de generar soluciones, ideas nuevas y útiles, o asociaciones múltiples, alternativas y variadas a un problema o estímulo dado. A esta capacidad de creación e innovación subyace una red neuronal cortical y subcortical que soporta la interacción dinámica y constante de funciones cognitivas superiores. Existen diferentes modelos cognitivos que explican cómo funciona nuestra capacidad de crear y diferentes factores asociados al rendimiento creativo como, por ejemplo, el sexo, la personalidad o el entrenamiento. El objetivo del presente trabajo está orientado a revisar los antecedentes científicos en torno a los sustratos neuroanatómicos y funcionales de la creatividad, y el efecto modulador que ejercen los aspectos biológicos, psicológicos y ambientales sobre esta capacidad del ser humano.

Abstract In the field of neuroscience, creativity is the ability to generate solutions, multiple ideas or alternative and varied associations to a given problem or stimulus. It can be understood as a set of cognitive processes that support the generation of new and useful ideas. Behind this capacity for creation and innovation lies a whole cortical and subcortical neural network that supports the dynamic and constant interaction of superior cognitive functions, and different cognitive models that explain how our ability to create works. However, there are also different factors which are associated with creative performance, such as sex, personality or musical training. The aim of this article is to review the background around the neuroanatomical and functional substrates of creativity, as well as the modulating effect exerted by the biological, psychological and environmental aspects about this human being´s ability.

Benefits of Music Therapy in the Quality of Life of Older Adults / Beneficios de la musicoterapia en la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores / Beneficios da musicoterapia na qualidade de vida dos idosos

Abstract Introduction: Aging is a complex, universal and irreversible process, with gradual changes that fluctu-ate from one person to another due to several factors (physiological, biological, environmental, social etc.). There are precedents for the potential effect of music therapy on psychological and social aspects which are characteristic of the elderly. In this sense, the aim of this work is to evaluate the effectiveness of music therapy in improving the quality of life of older adults. Materials and Methods: A quality of life inventory was administered, comparing a group that attended a music therapy stimulation and a control group that did not have this type of stimulus. Results: Music therapy attendees had higher scores in terms of total quality of life and subcomponents of the inventory (religion, creativity, recreation and love). Conclusión: The music therapy approach, with its non-invasive techniques, presents a proposal with potential benefits to improve the quality of life of the elderly.

Resumen Introducción: El envejecimiento es un proceso complejo, universal e irreversible, con cambios graduales que fluctúan de un individuo a otro por diversos factores (fisiológicos, biológicos, ambientales, sociales, etc.). Existen antecedentes del efecto potencial de la musicoterapia sobre aspectos psicológicos y sociales característicos de las personas de la tercera edad. En ese sentido, el objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar la eficacia de la musicoterapia para mejorar la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores. Materiales y métodos: Se administró un inventario de calidad de vida, comparando un grupo que asistía a un taller de musicoterapia y un grupo control que no tenía este tipo de estimulación. Resultados: Los asistentes a musicoterapia presentaron mayores puntajes en lo que refiere a la calidad de vida total y en subcomponentes del inventario (religión, creatividad, recreación y amor). Conclusión: El abordaje musicoterapéutico, con sus técnicas no invasivas, presenta una propuesta con potenciales beneficios para mejorar la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores.

Resumo Introdução: O envelhecimento é um processo complexo, universal e irreversível, com mudanças graduais que flutuam de um indivíduo a outro por diversos fatores (fisiológicos, biológicos, ambientais, sociais, etc.). Existem antecedentes do efeito potencial da musicoterapia sobre aspetos psicológicos e sociais característicos das pessoas idosas. Neste sentido, o objetivo do presente trabalho é avaliar a eficácia da musicoterapia para melhorar a qualidade de vida dos idosos. Materiais e métodos: Se administrou um inventário de qualidade de vida, comparando um grupo que assistia a um curso de musicoterapia e um grupo controle que não tinha este tipo de estimulação. Resultados: Os assistentes à musicoterapia apresentaram maiores pontuações no que refere à qualidade de vida total e em subcomponentes do inventário (religião, criatividade, recreação e amor). Conclusão: A abordagem musico-terapêutica, com suas técnicas não invasivas, apresenta uma proposta com potenciais benefícios para melhorar a qualidade de vida dos idosos.

Uso de la música para modular la memoria: Una revisión sistemática / Using Music to Modulate Memory: A Systematic Review

La memoria es una función cognitiva que permite al ser humano adquirir, almacenar y recuperar información. Dentro de la literatura se identifican diversos factores que tienen la capacidad de modificar la capacidad mnémica, así como también afectar las diferentes fases de formación de la memoria. En este sentido el objetivo del presente artículo de revisión sistemática estuvo orientado a presentar los antecedentes en cuanto al efecto de la música, como entrenamiento musical prolongado, así como intervención focal, sobre esta función cognitiva. Se seleccionaron 39 artículos de investigación empírica extraídos de diversas bases de datos. A través de la evidencia presentada se concluye que las propuestas musicales representan una potencial herramienta para abordar no sólo el estudio de la memoria, sino también para la estimulación y rehabilitación de la misma

Memory is a cognitive function that allows the human being to acquire, storage and recovery information. Within the literature there are several factors that had the ability to modify the mnemonic capacity, and to interfere with the different phases of memory. In this sense, the goal of this systematic review was oriented to present the antecedents related to the effect of music, as long-term musical training and also focal acute intervention, on this cognitive function. Thirty-nine articles were selected from several databases. Through the evidence presented it is concluded that musical interventions are a potential tool to approach the study of memory, its stimulation and rehabilitation as well.

Papel de la motivación sobre la memoria emocional durante la etapa preescolar: un análisis preliminar. Papel de la motivación sobre la memoria emocional durante la etapa preescolar: un análisis preliminar / Role of motivation on emotional memory during preschooler stage: A preliminary analysis

La memoria emocional es una memoria de largo término con contenido emocional, positivo o negativo, donde los eventos emocionales se recuerdan mejor que los neutros. La motivación se define como un impulso para comportarse de una manera determinada, y puede dividirse en intrínseca (sin recompensas) y extrínseca (dirigida a metas). Debido a que los procesos cognitivos son favorecidos por la motivación, el objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la interacción entre motivación y memoria de imágenes negativas, neutras y positivas, en dos grupos de niñas y niños de 5 años (recompensado y no recompensado). Los grupos no difirieron en el recuerdo de las imágenes de las tres valencias. Sólo en el grupo recompensado, las imágenes negativas fueron mayormente recordadas, lo cual indicaría que la recompensa luego de la tarea, favoreció la evocación posterior, y que este recuerdo fue diferencial en función del contenido emocional de las imágenes.

Emotional memory is defined as a long-term memory with emotional content, positive or negative, where emotional events are better remembered than neutral ones. Motivation is defined as an impulse to behave in a certain way, and can be divided into intrinsic (without rewards) and extrinsic (goal oriented). Cognitive processes are favored by motivation, so the objective of this work was to analyze the interaction between motivation and memory of images with different emotional valence in two groups of 5-year-old children (rewarded and not rewarded). The groups did not differ in the recall of any of the three valences. Only in the rewarding group did the negative images be remembered, which would indicate that the reward after the task favored the later evocation and that this memory was differential according to the emotional content of the images.

Procesamiento musical y modulación de la memoria emocional en Demencia Tipo Alzheimer / Musical processing and emotional memory modulation in Alzheimer's Disease

Los estímulos que contienen alto contenido emocional son mejor recordados por sujetos sanos que los estímulos neutros. La música actúa como modulador de la memoria emocional en sujetos músicos y no músicos. El papel que juega en patologías neurodegenerativas, como lo es la demencia tipo Alzheimer, ha sido poco estudiado. Algunos estudios sugieren que la capacidad musical se encuentra deteriorada en este tipo de pacientes, con lo cual, ésta parecería ser irrelevante a la hora de considerar las emociones que la música despierta en ellos. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo realizar una revisión bibliográfica acerca de la modulación de la memoria emocional a través de la música en sujetos sin patología y pacientes con demencia, así como también de las habilidades, tanto emocionales como musicales, conservadas y deterioradas en pacientes con esta patología.

Healthy subjects remember high emotional stimuli better than neutral stimuli. Music acts as a modulator of emotional memory in musicians and non-musicians. The role it plays in neurodegenerative pathologies, such as Alzheimer\'s disease, has been scarcely studied. Some studies suggest that musical ability is impaired in this type of patients, which would seem to be irrelevant when considering the emotions that music arouses in them. The aim of the present study is to review the literature about the modulation of emotional memory through music in subjects without pathology and patients with dementia, as well as the emotional and musical abilities, preserved and impaired in patients with this pathology.

Constructos psicológicos vinculados a la respuesta de frustración en humanos / Psychological constructs related to frustration´s response in humans

El presente artículo enumera una serie de procesos psicológicos vinculados con la respuesta que se ocasiona en los individuos frente a una omisión o supresión de un refuerzo esperado. Se discute la relevancia y complejidad de dicho proceso a la luz de las posibles áreas de estudio que involucra la conducta de frustración en humanos.

The present article mentions a serie of psychological processes related to the response that occurs in individuals against an omission or suppression of an expected reinforcement. The relevance and complexity of this process are discussed in light of the possible areas that are involved in the frustration behavior in humans.

Intervenciones musicoterapéuticas para la activación del sistema reticular / Music therapeutic interventions for reticular activating system

La musicoterapia es una disciplina que progresivamente está ampliando su campo de abordaje. Dentro de las nuevas intervenciones se pueden mencionar las implementadas en pacientes con estado alterado de conciencia y cuadros patológicos, producto de lesiones neuronales adquiridas que involucran al sistema reticular. La formación reticular es una red neuronal que establece conexiones con gran parte del sistema nervioso, regulando el alerta general, la dirección de la atención y la transición entre sueño y vigilia. A partir de esto, el trabajo que se informa está centrado en una descripción general de los diferentes estados alterados de conciencia y las intervenciones de una disciplina científica, con técnicas no invasivas que utiliza el sonido y sus elementos específicamente en el diagnóstico y abordaje terapéutico de pacientes en estado de mínima conciencia y su efecto en la formación reticular, teniendo como objetivo principal la rehabilitación del paciente y el aumento de sus niveles de alerta. Las técnicas en musicoterapia se basan en los resultados positivos del efecto de ciertos parámetros sonoros tales como la melodía, los aspectos temporales, la armonía, sobre indicadores fisiológicos (frecuencia respiratoria y cardíaca, conductancia de la piel, niveles de cortisol, etc.), que proporcionan un marco organizativo. A través de dicho marco las personas pueden responder e interactuar por medio de las propuestas musicales, determinadas por características, tales como la simplicidad, la utilización de la voz sin acompañamiento, improvisando vocales, melodías repetitivas, música de baja densidad cronométrica unida a la velocidad respiratoria del paciente y que pertenezca a su entorno familiar.

Music-therapy is a scientific discipline that in the last years has extended its work fields, to multiple populations and pathologies. Among the new interventions is the one related to altered conscious states, which are pathological disorders product of acquired neuronal lesions that involved the reticular system. Currently, there are different and varied models music-therapy that works with patients with altered consciousness states and the pathologies associated to those disorders. Parallel to the cognitive rehabilitation a branch emerged called neurological music-therapy, which is based in the neuroscientific model of musical production and perception and it is defined as the therapeutic application of music and theirs discursive elements in people who suffered motor, cognitive and sensorial deficits caused by neurological diseases. The reticular system is a neuronal network, known as a complex area due to its anatomy and functional heterogeneity. This network stablish connections with a large portion of the nervous system, acts as a filter system as it is responsible for separating incoming stimuli, discriminating between those relevant and not relevant, and it regulates the general alert, direction of attention, transition between awake, and sleep states. The lesions and deficits that involved the reticular system had been a point of scientific interest for many years. There are two main components related to conscience: the arousal or wakefulness (be aware) and the awareness (the content of conscience). The arousal is considered a preparation state to action that consists in primitive behaviors to the environment, i.e. involuntary behaviors. To maintain the arousal intervenes the ascendant reticular system. While awareness involved a complex process, a cognitive elaboration of thought. Such elaboration encompasses the process of information that is received through the senses and environmental demands. When these processes are interrupted because of traumas or anomalies could generated a coma or states where the content of conscious are affected. After the brain injury, the patients are in a coma state and from there they could emerged with different long-term results: Post-traumatic amnesia, Minimal conscious state, vegetative state or death. The music-therapy techniques used with this population are descripted in this work from a neurological model, which is based in empirical evidence. This evidence is result of the effect of specific sound parameters (as melody, rhythm, harmony) upon physiological indicators (as heart rate, respiratory frequency, skin conductance, cortisol levels, among others), as well as the use of familiar music for the patient, detecting physiological indicators during musical experiences. The music-therapy techniques provide and motivate an organizational framework through which patients with severe disorders of their expressive and receptive linguistic abilities could respond and interact through musical applications. These techniques are possible because music is an innate ability of all human beings, also because the auditive system is the first sense that develops in the intrauterine level. The characteristics of music-therapy techniques are defined for simplicity, the use of the voice, where repetitive melodies are improvised, without breaking the laws of musical expectation, with low chronometric density music; this type of music go along with the respiratory speed of the patient. Also the musical history of the patient is taken into account to enable a familiar environment. With this background, the current work focuses in a general description of the different conscious states, the implication of reticular system and the interventions of music-therapy as a scientific discipline that offers non-invasive techniques that used the sound and their elements to test, to diagnostic and to treat patients in a minimal state of conscious. This technique has the ultimate goal of rehabilitate the cognitive functions and enhance the alert levels, besides providing a reinforcement for the interdisciplinary approach.

Modulación de la memoria emocional a través de la música en adultos mayores: Un estudio preliminar / Modulation of emotional memory through music in older adults: A preliminary study

Existen múltiples factores que pueden afectar la consolidación de la memoria de los eventos emocionales, fortaleciendo o deteriorando los recuerdos. Distintas investigaciones en neurociencia han demostrado que el nivel de arousal puede tener un efecto determinante en el almacenamiento y consolidación de la memoria. Además, las investigaciones señalan que la exposición a diferentes piezas musicales puede modular la memoria, ya sea aumentándola o disminuyéndola; sin embargo, no se encuentran estudios realizados hasta el momento con adultos mayores. El objetivo del trabajo realizado fue evaluar cómo diferentes estímulos auditivos, piezas musicales activantes y relajantes, así como ruido blanco como condición control, modulaban la consolidación de la memoria en adultos mayores. Participaron 27 sujetos, divididos en tres grupos experimentales, quienes observaron imágenes emocionales o neutras y evaluaron el grado de activación / emocionalidad que les producían. De manera inmediata y de acuerdo al grupo de tratamiento asignado, fueron expuestos a diferentes estímulos musicales: música activante y relajante para los grupos experimentales y ruido blanco para el grupo control. Luego se realizaron pruebas de recuerdo libre y reconocimiento de las imágenes, de forma inmediata y diferida (una semana después). Los resultados muestran que los sujetos expuestos a música relajante tuvieron un menor recuerdo y reconocimiento, mientras los que estuvieron expuestos a música activante mostraron un mejor rendimiento. Los hallazgos permiten concluir que la música modula la consolidación de la memoria emocional visual en adultos mayores, siendo la música una herramienta de gran utilidad para la estimulación de la memoria en poblaciones con o sin disfunciones mnésicas.

In the last decades, different neuroscientific investigations have shown that emotions can be determinant in memory storage and consolidation. Events with emotional content are remembered more easily than neutral events. There are several factors that could affect memory consolidation for emotional events, strengthening or deteriorating them. Stress is one of them, since investigations indicate that moderate levels of stress improve the memory of emotional events, while high or low levels have the opposite effect (Justel, Psyrdellis, & Ruetti, 2013, 2014). Multiple studies showed that the exposition to different musical pieces could modulate memory. Activating music, both positive and negative valence, increases de levels of arousal and strengthen memory consolidation (Judde & Rickard, 2010), while relaxing music has the opposite effect and deteriorate the capacity of emotional memory (Rickard, Wing Wong, & Velik, 2012). However, there are not studies with older adults. The goal of this study was to evaluate how different musical pieces, arousing and relaxing ones, modulate memory consolidation in older adults. 27 participants were included, divided in three groups. 12 slides with emotional content and 12 neutral were presented in a computer, selected from the International Affective Picture System (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1995). The older adults watched the emotional and neutral images, and evaluated the arousal /emotionality degree of the images as they filled in a table of five choices, from not exciting to very exciting. According to the assignment group, they were exposed to different musical stimuli: activating or relaxing music for the experimental groups or white noise in the control group. The auditive stimulies were selected according to the previous literature. For the activating musical stimuli, Symphony No. 70 in D major of Joseph Haydn was chosen (Kreutz, Ott, Teichmann, Osawa, & Vaitl, 2008); for the relaxing musical stimuli, Pachebel's canon in D major was chosen (Knight & Rickard, 2001); for the control stimuli, white noise was chosen (Rickard et al., 2012). Then free recall and recognition test were performed, immediately and deferred (one week later). In free recall, each subject briefly listed the images he remembered, mentioning them with a word or a short sentence. For the recognition test, the 24 images were mixed up with 24 new images, and the participants had to indicate if they had seen each image or not, as they filled in a table. Regarding to the evaluation of the arousal / emotionality degree of the images, the results indicate that older adults, no matter the group, punctuated the emotional images as more activating tan neutral images, consolidating, as other studies, the validity and reliability of IAPS. The participants exposed to relaxing music had a worse performance in free recall and recognition, compared with the other two groups. On the other hand, it was expected that participants exposed to activating music have a better performance in free recall and recognition test. In free recall, both immediate and deferred, there is a tendency for the activating group to perform better than the control group, but no significant statistical data was found. Regarding to the recognition test, both immediate and deferred, no significant differences were found between the activating and the control groups. This may be because the sample was formed by a reduced number of participants, but if the sample is extended, the results may change. These results allow to conclude that music modulate the consolidation of visual emotional memory in older adults, being music a useful tool in memory stimulation and a possible therapeutic resource for patients with memory dysfunctions.

Efecto de la música sobre la memoria emocional verbal / Music effect on verbal emotional memory

Los sucesos emocionales se evocan en mayor medida y con más detalle que los neutros. La música puede afectar la consolidación de la memoria de los eventos emocionales, fortaleciendo o deteriorando los recuerdos. Por ello el objetivo del estudio fue evaluar el efecto de la música sobre la consolidación de la memoria verbal. Los participantes debían leer y oír una serie de palabras emocionales o neutras y evaluar el grado de activación/emocionalidad que les producían. De manera inmediata uno de los grupos fue expuesto a ruido blanco y el otro, a una pieza musical activante. Se evaluó el recuerdo libre y reconocimiento, inmediato y diferido, de las palabras. Los participantes expuestos a la pieza musical tuvieron un mejor recuerdo. Las palabras emocionales fueron mayormente recordadas que aquellas con valencia neutra. Por ende, la música modula la consolidación de la memoria verbal.

The emotional content of the events affects the posterior recall due that emotional events are remembered better and with more detail than the neutral ones. Music can affect memory consolidation of emotional events, either strengthening or deteriorating memories. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of music on verbal memory consolidation. The participants had to read and listen to neutral and emotional words and then evaluate the emotionality/arousal that these stimuli produced to them. Immediately one group was exposed to white noise; the other one, to an activating piece of music. Free recall and recognition tests were evaluated, immediately and deferred. The participants that were exposed to the musical piece had a better free. Besides, the emotional words were remembered better than the neutral ones. Our findings conclude that music modulates verbal memory consolidation.

La Improvisación Musical. Una Mirada Compartida entre la Musicoterapia y las Neurociencias / Musical Improvisation. Giving a Look Between Music Therapy and Neuroscience

La improvisación musical es un concepto abordado desde diferentes disciplinas y campos artísticos. Es una técnica de uso común en el ámbito musicoterapéutico, pero su desarrollo teórico desde las neurociencias parece ser un campo poco investigado. El objetivo de esta revisión es desarrollar la temática desde la disciplina musicoterapéutica y su inserción en el campo de la neurorrehabilitación, para lo cual se describirán los correlatos neuroanatómicos y los mecanismos cognitivos que caracterizan a esta habilidad creativa, y que la convierten en una técnica destacable en la rehabilitación de pacientes que han sufrido un daño neurológico.

Musical improvisation is a technique commonly used in the field of music therapy, but its theory is not well-researched in neuroscience. This paper focuses on improvisation in music therapy and its inclusion in the field of neuro-rehabilitation. This research describes neuro-anatomical correlates and cognitive mechanisms that characterize this creative skill and make it a remarkable technique for rehabilitation patients who have suffered neurological damage.

Novedad y modulación de la memoria: Mecanismos neurobiológicos implicados / Novelty and modulation of memory: Neurobiological mechanisms involved

La exposición a estímulos novedosos es un protocolo simple de emplear que involucra múltiples sistemas y procesos de memoria tales como codificación, consolidación y recuperación de la información. Esto hace plausible de emplearlo como un tratamiento útil para estudiar los mecanismos comportamentales, fisiológicos y moleculares implicados en esta función cognitiva. Se presentan estudios en modelos animales que dan cuenta de cómo la exploración de un ambiente novedoso puede ser útil para mejorar o deteriorar la memoria, en diferentes períodos ontogenéticos. Además, se presentan investigaciones que demuestran la participación de los diversos sistemas de neurotransmisión en este fenómeno así como los mecanismos moleculares implicados en este tipo de tratamiento. De este modo este tipo de tratamiento, no invasivo y sencillo de aplicar, adquiere relevancia para la ciencia aplicada como una posible alternativa para el desarrollo de estrategias de intervención en la temática.

Exposure to novel stimuli is a simple procedure to use that involved several systems and memory processes, such as acquisition, consolidation and recall of the information. Which make it a possible treatment to study the behavioral, physiological and molecular mechanism involved in this cognitive function. Novelty detection plays an important role in adaptation to the environmental changes and in the avoidance of possible dangerous. A novel stimulus elicits a response that will produce habituation when it becomes familiar. When animals are first exposed to a novel environment they explore it actively and in parallel they compare it to previous experiences, stored in its memory to evaluate the degree of novelty. On one side, it includes the response to novelty, activation, and stress-related factors and on the other hand, a response that decreases as the environment becomes familiar, which requires different processes related to learning, recall and recognition. Also, multiple studies showed that animals prefer to explore novel objects, compared with those with whom they had previous experience. Moreover, it has been shown that the ability to respond to novel stimuli is related to self-administration of various drugs, the discovery of spontaneous tumors, and even life expectancy since it was found that neophobic animals die younger than their counterpart's neophilic. In this work we presented studies that indicated how the exploration of a novel environment could be a useful tool to enhanced or deteriorated memory in different ontogenetic stages. The modulation of memory depends on the different characteristic of the treatment presentation. It was reported that the novelty presented prior to an acquisition of some training task can generate an improvement in memory performance. Although, it was founded that the novelty exploration produce an amnesic effect if it was presented after learning, showing the opposite effect. This have been shown in different paradigms such us consummatory successive negative contrast (cSNC) paradigm and inhibition avoidance, in different phases of the training. It was also important to note that this phenomenon involves different time window parameters, for example it is required that the novelty were presented at least one hour before the learning. Furthermore we mentioned data that shows that exposure to novelty during infancy induces a lasting effect of improved cognition and long-term memory that persists even in adulthood. The study of the effect of novelty in the postnatal period and its subsequent influence on other periods opens the possibility of the creative developing of strategies to improve learning and memory processes throughout the subject's life. Besides, we presented research that exhibited the implication of several neurotransmitter systems in this phenomenon and the molecular mechanisms involved in this treatment. Practically all the principal neurotransmitter systems, such as cholinergic, glutamatergic, adrenergic, among others, are involved. A lot of studies indicate that cholinergic neurotransmission plays a critical role in the processes of attention, learning and memory. The same functions correspond to the adrenergic system. The gabaergic system is also involved in the perception of novel stimuli. Glutamate receptors play an important role in the memory processes mainly. In addition, a vast number of studies also reported that the molecular brain activation is very extensive in all the process of explore a novel environment, realizing the complexity of this mechanism. Thus, this type of treatment, non-invasive and easy to apply, becomes relevant for applied science as a possible alternative for the development of many intervention strategies in the topic. Also the study of this phenomenon in post -natal period, allows thinking about possible strategies applicable in the development of this cognitive function.

Evaluación y modulación de la memoria emocional: un estudio preliminar / Evaluation and modulation of emotional memory: a preliminary study

El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la memoria de imágenes con diferente contenido emocional, y analizar si la realización de una tarea, con distintos niveles de complejidad, modulaba el recuerdo posterior de los participantes. Para ello 64 estudiantes observaron 24 imágenes emocionales y 24 neutras. Inmediatamente después, realizaban una tarea, que consistía en la resolución de operaciones matemáticas con distinto grado de dificultad. Una semana más tarde se evaluó a los participantes en una prueba de recuerdo libre. Como resultado se observó que las imágenes con contenido emocional se recordaron significativamente más que las neutras. La realización de la tarea no afectó la consolidación de la información acerca de las imágenes. Sin embargo, al igual que en la literatura, se encontró que el contenido emocional de las fotografías actuó como un neuromodulador facilitando la memoria de las imágenes emocionales, en comparación con las neutras.

Modulación de la memoria emocional: una revisión de los principales factores que afectan los recuerdos / Modulation of emotional memory: a revision of the main factors which influence memories

Las emociones están íntimamente vinculadas con la memoria. Numerosas investigaciones señalan que los eventos con contenido emocional (positivos o negativos) se recuerdan en mayor medida que los neutros. En este sentido, la memoria emocional es el resultado del almacenamiento de la información que estuvo acompañada por factores alertadores a través de los cuales se fijó con más facilidad. De acuerdo con esto, el objetivo del presente trabajo es realizar una revisión de los principales factores que modulan la consolidación de la memoria emocional en humanos. Específicamente, se va a analizar cómo influyen las emociones y el estado de alerta que se produce en una situación de estrés sobre la memoria. Además se analizan los mecanismos neurobiológicos involucrados en la consolidación de los recuerdos de situaciones emocionalmente significativas.

Emotions are closely linked to memory. Numerous studies indicate that (both positive and negative) emotional events are remembered more than neutral ones. Emotional memory is the result of storing the information that was accompanied by stressful factors through which the information is more easily fixed. Based on this background, the aim of this work is to review the main factors which modulate emotional memory consolidation in humans. Specifically, this paper seeks to analyze the influence of emotions and the alert state that a stressful situation produces on memory, as well as the neurobiological mechanisms involved in memories of emotionally significant situations.

Plasticidad cerbbral: participación del entrenamiento musical / Brin plasticity:: musical training invovvement

A lo largo de este trabajo, se revisaron las principales investigaciones que dan cuenta del efecto del entrenamiento musical tanto del cerebro adulto como en desarrollo. La música realiza demandas únicas al sistema nervioso. Esto llamó la atención de muchos investigadores provocando, en los últimos años, un incremento en las investigaciones en relación a la temática. Este aumento se vio beneficiado por el surgimiento de nuevas técnicas de neuroimagen y que posiciona a la música como una herramienta de investigación de la cognición humana y los mecanismos cerebrales superiores. La percepción y la producción musical son funciones particulares del cerebro humano que dependen de una amplia red neural córtico-subcortical distribuida en ambos hemisferios cerebrales y cerebelo. Los hallazgos en relación al tema indicarían que se encuentran diferencias tanto en la estructura como en el funcionamiento de los cerebros de adultos y de niños debido al entrenamiento musical, y que esto tiene más relevancia que las propiedades innatas de los sujetos. Existe una plasticidad cerebral que se debe a procesos adaptativos fruto de la estimulación ambiental.

The main research about the effect of musical training in adult and childhood brain was revised in this work. The music realizes unique demands to our nervous system. This call the attention of several researchers causing, in the past years, an enhancement of the exploration about this topic; this increment was beneft for the emergence of new neuroimaging techniques, the music positioned as an investigation tool of human cognition and superior brain mechanisms. The musical perception and production are specific functions of the human brain that depend of a wide cortical-subcortical neural net distributed across both hemi-spheres and cerebellum. The main findings in this area indicated structural and functional differences in the adult and child brain due to musical training, and this is more relevant that innate properties of the subject. There is brain plasticity due to adaptive processes product of the environmental stimulation.

Neonatal treatment with clomipramine and depression: A review of behavioral and physiological findings

Many times in science, the discovery of a treatment that has certain effect happens accidentally while the scientists are investigating another phenomenon. This is the case of the discovery of a possible animal model of depression by the administration of clomipramine (CLI) during neonatal days. Adult animals exposed to CLI in neonatal days showed alterations in REM sleep (for example, the decrease of REM latency); lower weight, disruptions in locomotor activity (the increase in activity depend on the dark / light phase in which the test starts, when the animals were tested in the light phase they found increase in activity, but no changes were observed when the animals were tested in the dark phase); less intracraneal self-stimulation, lower saccharin and sucrose consumption, less suppression of the consummatory behavior, sexual alterations in males (for example, expressed as a lower number of mounts and ejaculations; no alterations were found in the activity of the Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Gonadal axis and the level of testosterone was normal), higher alcohol consumption, disruptions in the agonistic response (CLI - treated animals were significantly less aggressive than control groups) and in learning (in the passive avoidance task and 8 radial arm maze) compared to untreated animals (rats that received vehicle during neonatal days). Several of these abnormalities could be reversed with those treatments that are effective for treating depression in humans (antidepressive drugs, nicotine and REM sleep deprivation treatment). These results were obtained in male rats of different strains and in hamsters, and at different months, the majority of them at 3-4 months, and some of them after the sixth, this could be because some changes were caused with the decrement in the age of the animals, although further research is needed to elucidate this issue. Neuroendocrinal alterations analogous to those found in human depression were also discovered in CLI - treated rats, although the data is contradictory. These include Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Adrenal axis alterations; while it is true that some experimental results found that CLI - treated rats have a higher basal level of corticosterone than controls, others found that not only do they differ in basal level, also during the stress situation; circulating corticosterone increases less and returns more rapidly to basal levels than control groups. For this reason, we can conclude that if alterations in the HPA axis indeed exist in CLI - treated animals, it is still unclear in which way the deregulation is manifested. Other results support the hypothesis that alterations found in CLI - treated animals are due to alterations in serotoninergic transmission during a critical period of development, such as the neonatal stage; more specifically, a reduction in the hypothalamic concentration of serotonin, like a decrease in the neuronal firing in the dorsal raphe nucleus. An increase in cholinergic activity was also found, although the data in this field is not as vast as that found in relation to the neurotransmission of serotonin. All of these results suggest that rats treated with CLI during neonatal days present alterations in adulthood analogous to human depression, however other findings indicate that is not yet a valid model. Further research is needed, and we have to be cautious with the conclusions because there is some evidence suggesting that this is a promising model but other does not support its validity. If a model like the neonatal administration of CLI achieves the reproduction of some symptoms, neurophysiological and behavioral alterations of depression, the advantages are invaluable. In this sense, neonatal treatment with CLI is a very promising animal model for the study of depression.

El presente trabajo describe los principales resultados acerca de un nuevo y probable modelo animal de depresión. Este modelo se basa, paradójicamente, en la administración de un antidepresivo, clomipramina, a ratas neonatas. Cuando los animales alcanzan la adultez, muestran alteraciones comportamentales que pueden ser interpretadas como depresivas, como hiperactividad, descenso en la búsqueda de placer, anormalidades en el sueño, entre otras. Se analizan los posibles mecanismos neurofisiológicos y neuroendocrinos involucrados. A pesar de las limitaciones que ofrece un modelo animal, es importante cómo logra reproducir algunos síntomas hallados en la depresión y debido a esto las ventajas del mismo son invaluables. Además, pueden estudiarse los mecanismos cerebrales implicados en la patogénesis y tratamiento del trastorno que por razones éticas son impensables de llevar a cabo en humanos. Por ello, se considera de gran valor el estudio realizado con el modelo de clomipramina con la perspectiva de que se siga trabajando en la validación del mismo.